The gut microbiome, antitumor immunity, and liver cancer

Primary liver cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer deaths globally (1). Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver malignancy, and the major risk factors for HCC include hepatitis B and C, alcohol consumption, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and liver cirrhosis (2). The liver is the common site of metastasis from breast, lung, and colorectal cancer, and malignant melanoma (3).